The soldiers

1. Hirdman 14th century

   Hird in Norse poetry and history refers to a ruler’s personal band of warriors or

   house servants. The squires serve as servants under their master under a kind of voluntary

   duty agreement. No regular salary is paid, but the ruler is expected to

   in addition to food and lodging, be generous and richly reward those who do a

   good work. Stinginess on the part of the ruler is considered a more serious character flaw than the

   most of the moral shortcomings that a modern reader might attribute to the characters in the sagas.

   A warrior was considered to be particularly high in rank in the army if, in addition to skill in arms

   also possessed the ability to read.

   In ancient Norway, the herd was a warrior band in the immediate service of the king

   and formed his bodyguard and the core of his army. In ancient times, the shepherd was called

   the king’s household servants. The person entering the herd had to touch the king’s sword,

   put their hands in the king’s and swear a special oath of allegiance. The herd was therefore called

   also the king’s swordsmen and his henchmen and sworn men.

   In the 14th century, several ‘new’ weapons were introduced to European battlefields, including

   the spike (a long spear), the longbow and the crossbow. In combination with new tactical

   troop formations, the use of armored cavalry was now limited

   on the battlefield.

   In summary, the role of the shepherd in Scandinavia was to be the king’s most loyal

   and skilled warriors, while also performing political and administrative tasks.

   They were both an important military force and a social symbol of the king’s power

   and control.

   Soldier in 14th century Norway

   In the 13th century, the full chain mail, popular in the 12th century, begins to

   complemented by iron, horn and leather plates. Until the 14th century this was

   type of soldier an increasingly common sight, with a leather harness with riveted

   iron plates, chain mail and helmet.

   Equipment:

   Helmet

   This type of helmet is called a cauldron hat and was probably one of the most common

   the helmets used by soldiers from the 13th century onwards. It is designed

   as a curved cross in which four scalloped metal plates and a board are riveted.

   This cauldron hat has been polished to a steel sheen, but there are many indications that the

   many cases have been painted. This doesn’t take as long, but it protects just as well

   against rust.

   The helmet provides much-needed protection against arrows and other projectiles, which often

   came from above. For the foot soldier, the wide board was also a good protection against

   knight’s and other rider’s fangs.chainmail and hood

   This soldier wears full chain mail, but when the harness was introduced they became

   full chain mail is no longer necessary. Many soldiers therefore wore chainmail

   which covered the arms and chest, but not the stomach. The reason for this was probably that

   chainmail is heavy enough to be cumbersome and tires out the soldier after a long

   time. How tired a soldier is can often be what ultimately determines whether he

   survive or are killed in a battle.

   Tunic

   A tunic is the name given to a long or semi-long piece of clothing, similar to a tunic

   and appears in descriptions of both female and male costumes. The skirt has

   looked the same for most of the Middle Ages.

   In addition to his regular tunic, a soldier probably also often wore a quilted tunic that

   cushioned blows and stopped stabs and slashes. Chainmail alone does not do much

   protection against a mace or a shield. However, this type of garment is in many cases

   both clumsy and warm, so you can imagine soldiers without thick

   combat shirts. The garment was also probably quite expensive as it was a

   extensive sewing work involving many layers of fabric, or padding, so for the

   the less well-off soldier, other solutions might be considered.

   Trousers

   Trousers are the name given to tight-fitting legwear and are simple legs that are tied to

   waist along with the brocades (medieval underpants). In the 14th century, the

   these often rather baggy shorts with a drawstring at the top. Sometimes with a band that

   the trousers were also tied up.

   The bottom of the trousers has a full foot and looks a bit like a shoe.

   Boots

   The soldier’s shoes were necessarily quite rough and of good quality. In contrast

   to what you might think, long marches and other walks were a far very

   part of a soldier’s daily life than combat and the use of weapons. Despite the fact that large parts of

   weapons and armor were transported on wagons, the shoes were worn hard by this

   life. It is estimated that an urban maid needed new shoes about four times

   a year. It is not unreasonable that a soldier needed new shoes more often.

   The boot is quite spacious, with room for extra trousers and ankle patches, something

   which was probably a must if the soldiers were out in the field during winter.

   Fortunately, they sometimes made it into winter quarters during the coldest months

   and temporarily suspended any campaigns. However, there are very many exceptions to

   that rule, and there is more than one commander who has been surprised by an enemy army

   he thought had long since gone into hibernation.

   The sole of the shoes is sewn into the overhanging broom. A notch is cut under

   the sole to prevent the seam from wearing out, the method is called countersunk seam.

   Sword

   Something strongly associated with the Middle Ages is the concept of the longsword. What in

   Today popularly called longswords are actually several different sword types. These have

   varying length, period and use. The size varies from about 110 cm for the one-and-a-half-handed sword, which can be held with one hand or two,

   to giant two-handed swords of over two meters. Swords meant to be handled with

   two hands have been used in Europe at least from the 13th century and with some

   hiatus until the 19th century. During this long period, the uses of

   long-range values varied between civilian self-defense weapons, legal duels,

   sport fencing and for military purposes. Long swords have been given a rather

   romanticized role in the consciousness of modern man. We like to think that

   The longsword had a dominant role on the battlefield. However, there is little evidence

   evidence of this.

   Spears

   In the 12th century, both cavalry and infantry in the fighting armies of

   Europe spears in their armament. The horsemen’s and footmen’s spears had so far been of

   same type but during this century the rider spear began to be made longer and heavier

   than those of infantrymen and were called lances. The foot soldiers’ spears were then about two meters

   long and thick-shafted with a diameter of about five centimeters. Such spears

   were in use until the 17th century, but other types of spears also existed in the Middle Ages.

   Some infantry variants had a wing-like projection just below the tip

   or a short crossbar which would prevent the weapon from penetrating too deeply. Another

   variant was the awl spear with an iron tip of about seventy-five to ninety centimeters

   and a parrying disk under the tip and was intended to be thrust through the armor

   joints of the opponent’s armor.

   Shield

   During the Middle Ages, the shape of shields changed from the more rounded shape

   dominated during the Viking Age to the more ‘iron-shaped’ variant.Norwegian garrison soldier 15th century

   A 15th-century garrison soldier was a soldier stationed in a fortification

   or castle to defend a specific place against attack. Garrisons were an important

   part of medieval military strategy, as they were responsible for protecting cities,

   strongholds, and strategic positions, especially when wars were protracted or when

   kings and nobles wanted to secure control over an area.

   In 15th-century Norway, warfare was characterized by the transition from medieval

   traditional ways of fighting to more organized and tactical methods. During this

   period, different types of soldiers, such as knights, mercenaries and peasants, played an

   played an important role in the battles fought in the region, including conflicts such as

   the Kalmar Union Civil War and battles between Denmark, Sweden and Norway.

   Mercenaries became increasingly common in the 15th century. These soldiers were professional

   and offered their services to whoever paid the best, regardless of whether it was a king,

   nobleman or merchant town. Swiss and German mercenaries, especially those so

   called Landsknektarna, were known for their discipline and fighting techniques. They used

   often long spears or pikes and fought in tight formations.

   Key aspects of the garrison soldier’s role:

   1. stationed in fortifications: the garrison soldier was not part of a mobile

   army but was stationed in a specific location, often a castle or a city wall.

   Their main mission was to defend this place, keep an eye out for enemies,

   and be prepared to repel an attack.

   2. Equipment and armor:

   Helmet

   This type of helmet is called a cauldron hat and was probably one of the most common

   the helmets used by soldiers from the 13th century onwards. It is designed

   as a curved cross in which four scalloped metal plates and a board are riveted.

   This cauldron hat has been polished to a steel sheen, but there are many indications that the

   many cases have been painted. This doesn’t take as long, but it protects just as well

   against rust.

   The helmet provides much-needed protection against arrows and other projectiles, which often

   came from above. For the foot soldier, the wide board was also a good protection against

   knight’s and other rider’s gauntlets.

   Armor – padded jacket

   Under the chain mail, this soldier is wearing a padded jacket, known as armor.

   It is clear that the use of cloth armor, here in the North

   often called “armor”, has been widespread alongside iron armor. However, there are

   almost no such jackets survive, and those that do are difficult to interpret or

   redesigned already in historical times, which makes interpretation more difficult. The historical sources also have a confused terminology where the same garment can be referred to in different

   names in various places in the text.

   This armor is made of (in order) linen, interlining of coarse linen, a thick layer of

   raw cotton (in places 20 cm), coarse lichen and finally (innermost towards the body) linen.

   Cotton was not very common in clothing in general, but seems to have been used in its raw

   form and as a weft in cheap fabrics, in contexts where multi-layered

   fabrics, the word ‘fustian’ is often used, which today is usually interpreted as a fabric

   with linen in the warp and cotton in the weft. The raw cotton is not evenly distributed

   over the garment, but is thickest on the back and across the chest.

   An alternative way of constructing cloth armor is mentioned in The Household Accounts of

   Sir John Howard: “And on the 24th day of January [1464], I asked the shirtmaker of Holte to make

   me a battle shirt, with two pieces on the front with 19 layers of white fustian, and four

   layers of linen, and one layer of black fustian to put on the outside; and for the back 16

   layers of white fustian, four layers of linen, and one layer of black fustian to cover the others

   and for the sleeves one layer of black fustian, and six layers of white fustian, and two layers

   linen.” [my free translation].

   And another reference is mentioned in the ordinances of Louis XI of France (1461-1483):

   The outermost layer of the said armor shall be 30 or at least 25 layers of cloth and deerskin; the

   thirty layers of deerskin shall be of cloth which has been used and made pliable

   because it is the best to use for this, and these armor shall be made in four

   pieces. The sleeves should be as strong as the body, except for the leather, the hole

   for the sleeve must be large, and the armhole should be placed near the collar, not on the shoulder

   leg, so that it is wide under the armpit and full under the arm, spacious enough

   on the sides below. The collar should be like the rest of the garment, but not too high

   at the back to make room for the salade [helmet]. The armor should be laced at the front,

   and under the opening there should be a loose piece as thick as the garment itself.

   Wearing a sleeveless and collarless sweater makes the armor safe and comfortable

   underneath of two layers of fabric, which is only four fingers wide at the shoulder, which you attach

   the trousers in. Then the wearer shall float, as it were, in his armor, and feel free, for

   never has anyone seen half a dozen men killed by stings or arrows in this type of

   armor, especially if they are troops used to combat. [my free translation].

   Chain mail

   The purpose of wearing chain mail is primarily to protect the wearer from the cutting action of

   such as swords and knives. This soldier still has a full chain mail underneath

   their armor, which became more unusual in the 15th century. Many soldiers instead wore

   chainmail that covered the arms and chest, but not the belly where the harness instead

   protected.

   Harness

   The harness was a common protection for late medieval soldiers. It is often called the

   “armor” and seems to be something that the bourgeois who went in the “care” (city guard)

   There are sometimes stories told that the soldiers were not assigned armor for their backs.

   This would make them less likely to flee because they knew they were

   less protected with their back to the opponent.

   Arm

   The arm was easily cut. The professional soldiers therefore often chose to wear

   protection on this body part. Variations to the metal sleeve we see here, are to sew on

   a forged chain link on the outside of the sleeve to a padded fabric garment which prevents the

   the worst blows. Still other soldiers had no arm protection at all, they considered

   perhaps that it was more important to be able to move the weapon arm as freely and easily as

   possible.

   Steel boots

   After the head, soldiers seem to want to protect their hands, probably because they

   are so exposed in a battle. In many pictures where you see a soldier, he has almost

   always helmet, and if he has only one additional piece of armor, it is either a

   harness or a pair of gloves. These steel gloves are of simple two-jointed design,

   something that, along with the single-jointed, and those without joints were much

   more common than the often preserved gloves with many joints, such as separate fingers.

   Armored gloves are usually extremely flexible and easy to move around in, it was quite

   simply a prerequisite for the fighter to survive in his profession. The iron mitten

   is often attached to a leather mitten on the inside.

   Bones

   Judging by many of the injuries sustained by soldiers in the great medieval

   the legs were a vulnerable target. If you stab your enemy in the leg, he cannot move

   after this. Sheet-metal clad legs were therefore a fairly common occurrence in the late

   of the Middle Ages.

   Like double-legged trousers and high boots, the armored legs are suspended

   over the thighs, either in a belt or in the tunic worn under the rest of the

   armor.

   Boot

   This type of high boots is difficult to locate in the sources. Sometimes they appear

   as riding boots, sometimes as boots and sometimes as leather breeches. Probably due to

   it on the user and the occasion, most likely they belong to the bourgeoisie anyway and

   the soldiers to. The boots are fastened with straps to a belt or to the tunic under

   armor, otherwise they do not stay up. Sometimes the shaft is folded down, for example when it

   is warm, so you get a type of collar boots.

   The boots are held up by this leather strap which is sewn to the inside of the

   upper part of the boot.

   Straps are used to pull the upper leather of the boot together to fit the foot and leg.

   This boot has a two-piece tread sole plugged with wooden plugs, which are visible from

   as small spots on the sole. Using wooden plugs works better than iron plugs

   because the wood wears down with the leather and does not creep up the foot when the sole

   is worn down. Underneath the plugged sole, between the front and rear sole, you can see a second

   outsole sewn to the shoe’s last with a countersunk seam, this seam is visible as a

   notch on the edge of the sole.

   Sword

   This is a one- or two-handed sword typical of the late Middle Ages.

   Spear

   In the 15th century, all the older types of spears and other polearms in the infantry

   began to be supplanted by the ‘long spear’, which seems to have originated in Italy.

   As early as 1327, the burghers of the city of Turin defended themselves with spears that were eighteen feet

   (about six meters) long. Mercenaries from Switzerland got to know this weapon and

   the Swiss introduced it into their armies in the early 15th century and over the century

   the name ‘pik’.

   3. Functions and tasks:

   ◦ Defense of the wall: The garrison soldiers patrolled the city or

   walls of the castle, keeping an eye out for enemy troops and preventing

   enemy from entering through gates or other weak points.

   ◦ Guarding entrances: They were responsible for keeping an eye on the city gates

   or fortification entrances, often using gatekeepers or towers

   to detect the enemy in time.

   ◦ Prepared for siege: If the city or castle was besieged by

   enemy, the garrison was the first line of defense. They were responsible for

   to withstand all the stresses of the siege, such as attacks by

   catapults, siege engines or attacks by enemy infantry.

   ◦ Warfare in cities and fortresses: Cities and fortresses became everything

   more important in the 15th century. In warfare, sieges played an important

   central role. Gunpowder weapons, such as early forms of cannons and

   small arms, started to be used in combat. Fortresses like

   Stockholm and Kalmar were key strategic points, and taking or defending a

   defending a fortress required specific tactics that included

   siege weapons, undermining and breaching walls. An important

   weapon for the defending soldiers was the crossbow, which could shoot

   with great power and precision. It was particularly useful in sieges

   where it could be used from walls and defenses.

   4. training and discipline: garrison soldiers were often not as skilled as

   elite troops, but they were trained in basic combat techniques and

   fortification defense. They needed to be able to use longbows or crossbows to shoot at the enemy from the safety of the walls, and to defend

   gates or walls in case of direct confrontation.

   5. lifestyle and duties: Life as a garrison soldier was often monotonous,

   as they spent large parts of their days keeping watch and

   maintaining order in the city or town. They were also responsible for

   helping with the maintenance of fortifications, repairing walls, traps or

   preparing the city’s food supply during a siege.

   6. pay and social status: garrison soldiers were often ordinary soldiers with

   relatively low social status. They could be employed by the king or a

   feudal lord and received a salary or rations for his work, but had not

   the same status as knights or nobles. Their lives were often difficult and

   unsafe, and they could be exposed to harsh conditions during sieges.

   7. tactics and formations: battlefield tactics in the 15th century began

   evolve away from chaotic melees towards more organized formations.

   Infantry could be formed into dense shield walls, while cavalry was used for

   to attack flanks or exploit weaknesses in enemy lines. It was also

   important to coordinate cavalry and infantry to face different types of

   threat on the battlefield. Command and discipline became increasingly important, especially among

   mercenaries and more professional troops.

   8. peasant bands and local forces: in Sweden and Norway, where the central government

   was weaker than in Denmark, farmers and local forces were often called to arms

   when needed. These troops were less professional than the knights or

   mercenaries but could still play an important role in battles, especially in defense

   of home territories and in major popular uprisings such as the Engelbrektsupproret in

   Sweden.

   9. Forest battles and guerrilla warfare: Since the Nordic landscape is

   largely consisted of forests and difficult terrain, developed

   combat techniques that took advantage of this. Smaller forces could carry out ambushes

   and guerrilla-style attacks in forests and mountainous areas, where traditional

   cavalry and large infantry formations were less effective.

   In summary, warfare in the North in the 15th century was characterized by a

   mix of older medieval methods and newer tactics, with both heavily armored

   knights and simple peasant bands participated. With the development of siege art

   and new weapons such as crossbows and early firearms, warfare changed

   gradually, and mercenaries became increasingly important.

   By the mid-15th century, changes in European warfare had led to

   that ever larger armies were raised. The new armies consisted mainly of

   well-trained and well-equipped infantry, i.e. foot soldiers.

   When, in the second half of the 15th century, pikes began to be used with

   with firearms (Sweden more 16th century), the infantry became superior to the

   cavalry. Well-disciplined infantry forces now became an effective tool on

   Knights in armor from the 16th century

   The development of knights’ armor in the 14th and 15th centuries led to its

   perfection in the 16th century with metal armor that completely covered the rider’s

   body.

   A knight was a warrior and nobleman during the Middle Ages and until

   Renaissance, who lived according to strict social and military codes. Knights were trained in

   warfare, horseback riding and the use of weapons and was often part of the feudal

   the army. They had a high social status and acted as both warriors and leaders

   within the community. Knights also had an important symbolic role, and their dignity

   and honor were closely linked to their performance in battle and their ability to follow

   the strict chivalric code, which often included courage, loyalty, and protection of the

   the weak.

   The armor usually weighed between 30-50 kilos, which meant that the people

   consumed on average twice as much energy as normal, both when walking

   walking and during full sprint marching.

   It consisted of a helmet, often with a flip-up visor, a ring collar that went around the neck and

   shoulders, a breastplate extended at the bottom by abdominal braces with a hip skirt,

   a back brace extended at the bottom by a loin brace, thigh braces, articulated arm and

   leg braces, and gloves and shoes.

   During the 16th century, there were increasing differences between the armor of the

   the armor used in the armies of the belligerents. For both the cavalry and

   infantry, the design was simplified to make it more suitable and comfortable

   for field use but the armor was still an unwieldy and heavy suit of armor that

   covered the whole body. In the latter half of the 16th century, efforts were made to make all

   parts of the armor bulletproof even for musket balls, whereby it as a whole became

   significantly heavier.

   At the beginning of the 17th century, the knight’s armor began to lose its importance due to

   the development of firearms.

   A medieval knight fought according to a strict set of methods and tactics that were deeply

   rooted in their role as elite warriors. Knights were heavily armored cavalrymen and represented both

   military strength and social status. Their fighting techniques were the result of training from a young age and a

   carefully crafted military tradition. Here is an overview of how a knight fought:

   1. equipment and armor

   The knight’s equipment was crucial to his fighting technique. It consisted mainly of the following:

   – Armor: A knight often wore full body steel armor (plate armor) during the 14th and

   15th century. Knights used to wear chain mail, but plate armor provided better protection against

   both stabbing and slashing weapons. The armor covered the whole body, including helmet (often

   Lance: A lance was the knight’s main weapon for cavalry shocks, a long and heavy weapon.

   spear-like staff used to ride into the enemy with full force and try to

   pierce or knock down opponents.

   – Sword: When the battle went into melee or after the lance became useless, the knight used

   often their sword, which was one of the most symbolic and versatile weapons. Swords were

   designed for both stabbing and slashing.

   –Shield: In earlier periods, shields were common, but as plate armor became

   more effective, knights began to carry smaller or no shields, especially in the late Middle Ages.

   The shields used were usually large and teardrop-shaped (also called ‘knight’s shields’).

   2. cavalry shock

   The most typical and well-known fighting technique for a knight was the cavalry charge, where knights

   rode in tight formations against the enemy lines. This attack was carried out at full speed with the lances

   extended, and the aim was to break the enemy lines by a massive and powerful attack. This

   was a psychological as well as a physical weapon, as the advancing heavy cavalry could

   create confusion and panic in the enemy ranks.

   –The lance attack: During the cavalry charge, the knights tried to hit their enemies with the lance

   lace. Due to the power of both the horse and the knight, this attack could crush

   armor and shields and sometimes knock down enemies altogether. After the first lance was broken

   (which often happened), the knight drew his sword or axe to continue fighting on foot or from

   horseback.

   3. Close combat (Mêlée)

   If a cavalry charge failed to decide the battle or if the knight was thrown from his horse,

   he continued the battle on foot or in close combat from horseback. Close combat involved the use of shorter

   weapons such as swords, axes, or sometimes clubs (trained weapons to smash armor).

   –Sword fighting: Swords were the knight’s primary weapon in close combat, where he either tried to stab

   opponent or find weaknesses in the armor to escape. The battle could be very

   brutal, especially when knights met face to face and tried to beat away each other’s

   defenses with strength and technique.

   –Shield and armor in defense: The knight’s shield and armor played a crucial role in

   defense. The shield could ward off enemy blows, while the heavy armor protected against

   almost all attacks, making the knights extremely difficult opponents to defeat in

   close combat.

   4. Fighting on foot

   Although knights were mainly cavalrymen, it sometimes happened that they had to fight on foot,

   especially during sieges or if they were thrown from their horses. When they fought on foot, they used

   their swords and battle axes, and their armor gave them a significant advantage

   over lighter armored soldiers.

   –Formations and discipline: Although knights were most effective in individual battles,

   they began to be integrated more into organized infantry formations in the 15th century, especially when

   heavy cavalry charges became less effective against more disciplined foot soldiers, such as the

   Swiss pikes.5. tournaments and training

   Knights were trained from a young age in combat techniques through jousting and weapons training. The jousting games

   was a way to hone their skills in using the lance, sword and shield in a controlled environment.

   These competitions helped the knights to improve their combat technique and physical endurance, which was

   crucial to their success on the battlefield.

   6. Sieges and fortress battles

   Knights also took part in sieges, both as attackers and defenders. They could participate in

   storming fortresses using ladders, battering rams and other siege weapons, or

   defend the walls against such attacks. Here, close combat with swords and crossbows were common methods of

   combat.

   7. the evolution of warfare

   Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the traditional fighting methods of knights began to lose their dominance with

   development of firearms such as crossbows and early muskets, and the use of pikes and

   disciplined infantry. However, the knights partly adapted to this by participating in more

   organized military units and integrate into larger armies rather than acting independently.

   Summary

   The knight’s combat technique was centered around the cavalry charge with lance and sword, where their heavy

   armor and powerful horses gave them a big advantage against lighter armored opponents. They were trained

   warriors who also participated in close combat and defended fortresses, and their skill in battle was a

   the result of years of training and tournaments. However, their way of fighting gradually changed with

   the development of new weapons and tactics in the late Middle Ages.Garrison soldier 16th century

   A soldier in the 16th century, especially at the end of the century, often wore a uniform or costume that was

   practical and adapted to the combat techniques and weapon systems of the time. Soldiers’ appearance varied

   depending on their rank and the type of unit they belonged to, but here are some general features of the

   typical Danish soldier during this time:

   1. Headgear

   – Helmet: Commonly used were iron or steel helmets, which often had a pointed

   shape, such as the ‘Morion’ helmet, which had a distinctive upturned brim. These helmets

   provided good protection against blows and projectiles.

   –Feathers or decorations: High-ranking officers or nobles could wear helmets decorated

   with feathers or fabric to show their status.

   2. armor

   –Breastplate: Many soldiers, especially cavalrymen, wore a metal breastplate to protect

   upper body. These suits of armor were often simple and practical, but could be heavier for

   better protection.

   –Shoulder and leg protection: Some soldiers, mainly cavalrymen or heavily armored units,

   wore shoulder, arm and leg protection made of sheet metal. Infantrymen wore lighter armor, sometimes consisting of

   of leather or textile with metal reinforcements.

   –Jackets and double collars: Many wore jackets of thick fabric, often reinforced with

   metal washers or slats for extra protection. Double collars (like a vest) were also used,

   with leather or metal reinforcements.

   3. costume

   –Doublet: Soldiers often wore a double-breasted jacket or doublet, usually of wool or leather,

   which provided some flexibility and mobility in combat. These were sometimes padded for extra protection.

   – Trousers (trousers or breeches): Soldiers often wore knee-length trousers (breeches or trousers),

   worn with high socks or boots. These could be made of wool or leather.

   – Cloak or cape: During colder months, many soldiers wore a cloak or cape, often

   made of wool, which protected them from the weather.

   4. Weapons

   –Longsword or cutlass: Many soldiers were equipped with swords as their sidearm.

   Cutlasses (shorter, heavier swords) were common among both infantry and

   cavalry.

   –Spear, halberd or pik: Many Danish infantrymen carried long spears or pikes, which were

   common in the fighting techniques of the time. The Hillebarder, with its axe-shaped tip, was used by some

   units.

   – Archers and muskets: By the end of the 16th century, firearms became more common, and many

   soldiers carried arquebuses or muskets, which were early forms of rifles.5. Shoes and boots

   – Low shoes or boots: Soldiers often wore heavy leather shoes or boots that were practical in

   both fighting and marching. Cavalrymen wore higher boots to protect their legs when riding.

   6. colors and emblems

   –Uniforms and colors: Uniforming was not standardized as it became later, but

   soldiers from the same unit or region could wear similar colors or cloth badges to

   identify themselves. Often bright colors such as red, blue or yellow were used to show belonging to

   different nobles or armies.

   –Flags and banners: Soldiers often marched under banners that represented their country or

   his master.

   The Danish soldier of the 16th century was thus equipped with a mixture of practical and

   protective clothing, adapted for both combat and harsh conditions, with weapons that were standard for

   period, and armor that was effective but still light enough to allow mobility.Garrison soldier early 17th century

   In the first half of the 17th century, Bohus Fortress was still Norwegian but

   under Danish rule. In 1658, the fortress became Swedish for the first time, which

   opened the way for the arrival of the Swedish Carolinians in the second

   half of the century.

   During the 17th century, military organization was improved through various

   conscription systems that caused the armies to expand greatly during the 17th century.

   One example is the Swedish division system that was established during

   period, which meant that each parish had to provide the state with a certain

   In the process, the state was able to retain many of its

   military units even in peacetime. As the military units became more

   permanent, it also strengthened the unit’s mentality, cohesion and

   discipline among the troops. For most of the 17th century, the

   However, the majority of armies are still made up of recruited troops in the form of

   foreign mercenaries.

   Because of the size of the new armies, wars were fought in agricultural settlements

   on the plains where the war could feed itself.

   By the middle of the 17th century, the bayonet began to be used, replacing the role of the pikes

   on the battlefield. Musketeers no longer had to interact with pikemen on

   the battlefield for protection in close combat. As a result, it also changed the

   tactical order of battle. The infantry could now be formed into tightly packed lines,

   usually in battalions of two to three man depth, where all soldiers carried musketry

   with a mountable bayonet. The tactic was to bring the broad ranks of

   soldiers as close to the enemy as possible, then stop and fire one or more

   or several concentrated bursts.

   The troops’ fire became more devastating the closer they got to the enemy.

   Once the enemy lines were in disarray, the idea was to

   a concerted bayonet charge to break up the enemy ranks and bring the

   them to flee. Once the enemy was on the run, cavalry was often deployed to ride

   down and trap the scattered troops who were then easy prey.

   The tactic of dense formation also had a defensive side because

   because, like the packed infantry formations of previous times, it was easier to

   to repel attacks from both infantry and cavalry.

   The 1630s were a time of intense warfare, especially in Europe, where the Thirty Years’ War

   raged. The equipment of a soldier at that time varied depending on the type

   of soldier it was (e.g. musketeer, pikemen, or cavalry), but here is a general

   description of a foot soldier’s (or infantryman’s) equipment during this period:

   1. Weapons

   –Musket: The musket was the most common firearm for infantrymen. It was a

   slow-loading firearm, often with a long barrel and connected to a primer or matchlock. The soldier loaded it with powder and bullets (or

   iron balls). Musketeers often fought in line, and they needed a lot of practice

   to load and fire quickly in sync.

   –Pik: Pikemen also carried a long spear-like weapon, called a pik,

   which was between 4 and 6 meters long. The spike was used to fight

   attacking cavalry and as a support to protect the musketeers during

   battle.

   –Sword or sabre: Around this year, swords and sabres were often part of the

   soldier’s equipment for close combat, although they were not used as often as

   firearms or pikes.

   2. armor

   –Breastplate: The heavy armor that was previously common began to disappear

   in the 17th century, but some soldiers, especially officers or heavy

   infantrymen, could still wear a breastplate and helmet. The armor was

   not as widespread among regular soldiers, who preferred lighter and

   more mobile equipment.

   –Helmet: Soldiers often wore helmets of various kinds, including the popular lobster

   the tail helmet, which was a metal helmet with a raised back to protect

   the neck. It protected the head from blows, but was not as heavy as full

   armor.

   –Armored vest: Some soldiers wore a light armored vest, which was a smaller

   protection than the breastplate and could be made of steel or iron, or sometimes

   leather.

   3. uniform and clothing

   –Clothing: A soldier’s clothing often consisted of a simple jacket and trousers, usually in

   dark colors such as blue, red or green, depending on the army colors and

   the standard of the regiment. It was not uncommon for soldiers to have worn or

   torn clothes due to the harsh demands of war.

   –Boots: High leather boots were common, especially for footmen. They provided protection

   legs and provided better traction on the ground.

   –Belt: The soldier wore a belt to hold his sword or saber, and to

   attach a nozzle holder for the musket primer.

   4. Equipment for loading and maintaining weapons

   –Primer and primer holder: For soldiers who used matchlocks or

   primers, they needed a system to hold the primers (which were small metal caps filled with

   small metal caps filled with gunpowder) dry and easily accessible.

   –Powder bag: A small bag in which the soldier kept his powder for the musket. The

   was also common to have a small metal bucket to dose the right amount of gunpowder.

   –Bullets: Metal bullets for muskets and pistols. The soldier often had a bandolier

   (a kind of belt or vest with compartments) where he kept these bullets.

   –Firing line or match wire: In order to light the fire at the musket

   the musket’s percussion cap system, a fuse or a narrow wire was needed that was in a

   burning condition during combat.5. Food and water containers

   –Water bottle: A simple leather bottle to hold water during long marches

   and battles.

   –Rations: The soldier often had a small food ration consisting of dried meat,

   bread or porridge.

   6. tents and sleeping equipment

   –Lightweight tents: As soldiers were often on campaign and did not have access to

   permanent buildings, they needed a light, portable tent to pitch

   camp during the night. Sometimes it could be a simple canvas or quilt.

   –Sleeping bag or blankets: To keep warm during cold nights, blankets were used

   or simple sleeping bags, often made of coarse fabric or leather.Garrison soldier 18th century

   A Carolinian soldier in the 18th century was a soldier in the Swedish army during

   the time of the Great Powers. The Carolinians were known for their discipline, perseverance and

   combat capability.

   Soldiers lived in harsh conditions, often poorly equipped and exposed to

   extreme weather conditions, especially during the famous campaigns in Russia and

   Norway. Despite this, the Carolinians were strong believers, loyal to King Charles XII and saw

   themselves as God’s warriors.

   Many of the Carolingian soldiers were recruited through the division system, a system where

   peasants contributed soldiers and provided for them in peacetime.

   After Sweden’s defeat in 1721, the Carolingian army was disbanded, and many soldiers

   returned to civilian life, often to a life of poverty.

   The Carolingian soldiers developed a particular fighting technique that was both brave and

   aggressive, designed to maximize the chance of quickly breaking enemy lines and

   win the battle through surprising and powerful attacks. This method of fighting was called

   often referred to as “faith and bayonet” because it emphasized close combat and a

   strong courage of the soldiers.

   1. Carolinian attack tactics

   The main strategy of the Carolinians was to approach the enemy quickly with

   musket fire and then attack in close combat with bayonets and swords. This meant a

   well-choreographed and disciplined form of combat where timing and coordination were

   crucial.

   The Carolinian attack (known as the ‘go-go’)

   –Infantry assault: instead of relying on prolonged musket battles like other

   European armies at this time, the Carolinians relied on fast and

   determined attack. The attack began with them advancing in dense

   formations, usually two ranks deep.

   –Short-range musket fire: The soldiers did not fire from long distances but came so

   close to the enemy as possible. They usually fired only one or two rounds at

   very close range (about 30 meters or closer). This is because their musket fire

   would have maximum effect, as firefights at longer ranges were usually

   ineffective due to the lack of precision of muskets.

   –Rapid transition to bayonet charge: after firing shots, they ran

   quickly advance towards the enemy to switch to close combat with bayonets and

   swords. This made them an extremely aggressive army, where the morale and

   courage was crucial.

   Close combat with bayonet and sword

   –The importance of close combat: the Carolinians’ fighting technique relied heavily on striking

   the enemy in close combat. At the time, the bayonet was an effective weapon for

   close combat. By attacking at high speed, the Carolinians could often

   take the enemy by surprise and break their lines before they could recover. – The power of morality: The Carolinians had a strong focus on morality and discipline.

   By maintaining tight ranks and pressing forward quickly, they knew that an enemy

   that began to falter could be defeated without having to fight their entire

   entire force.

   The role of the cavalry

   –Cavalry shocks: the Carolinian cavalry was another crucial component

   in the army’s battle tactics. They carried out heavy cavalry charges at high speed, with the horsemen

   stormed straight into the enemy lines with swords and pistols. The cavalry

   were often used to flank or break enemy lines when the infantry had

   engaged the enemy.

   –Dragoon Corps: Elite units used as a personal bodyguard for

   the king or high-ranking commanders. These troops were also very

   effective in combat.

   3. defense strategy

   –Fighting in defensive positions: the Carolinians were also capable defenders. When

   they needed to defend themselves, they often took up positions behind natural barriers such as

   hills, ridges or rivers. Their fighting spirit and discipline enabled them to

   withstand larger enemy forces during fierce sieges or defensive battles.

   –The square formation: when the Carolinians faced a cavalry charge from the enemy

   they often formed a square formation, with the soldiers lining up in a square

   positioning with the rifles pointing outwards. This was an effective defense technique

   against cavalry.

   4. religious beliefs and morals

   –Religious beliefs: The courage and stubbornness of the Carolinians were often driven by a

   strong religious beliefs. They saw themselves as chosen by God and believed

   that they were fighting for a righteous cause, which contributed to their ability to stand firm in

   difficult battles, even against overwhelming odds.

   5. Fighting in difficult conditions

   –Winter battles: The Carolinians were used to fighting in harsh conditions, especially

   during the Great Northern War. During the campaign in Norway and against Russia

   they often fought in severe cold and snow, which placed great demands on their endurance

   and discipline.

   Summary:

   The battle tactics of the Carolingian soldiers were based on fast and decisive attack, close

   formations, effective use of bayonet and musket, and a strong sense of

   very strong focus on morale and discipline. By combining these factors

   they often managed to surprise and defeat enemies who were numerically superior, which

   made them one of the most feared and successful armies of their time.The equipment of the Carolinians was simple but functional and reflected the

   the Swedish army’s focus on mobility and efficiency in battle in the 17th and 18th centuries

   speeches. Here is a description of their main equipment:

   Uniform:

   –The coat: the distinctive blue uniform, often called the “Carolinians coat”,

   had yellow lapels and collars. It was made of heavy wool, designed to

   withstand cold and harsh climates.

   Trousers: Usually made of wadding or heavy fabric, often in a matching color to the coat.

   In winter, thicker clothing or fur was used for extra protection against the cold.

   Shoes and socks: Leather boots or low shoes, depending on availability and climate,

   often with buckles. Stockings were made of wool, and many soldiers had to make their own

   shoes when the army was short of equipment.

   Headgear: The most common headgear was a triangular hat (tricorne) in black

   felt or leather. Some soldiers, especially grenadiers, could wear higher hats or

   hats.

   Musket: The main weapon of the Carolinian infantry was the flintlock musket. It was long

   and weighed around 5-6 kg. It had a bayonet mount, so the soldiers could put

   on a bayonet for close combat. soldiers often carried a firing bag with gunpowder

   and bullets.

   Bayonet: A triangular bayonet was used for close combat, which was common in

   the tactic of the Carolingian army to storm the enemy in dense formations.

   Sword: A shorter sword or sabre used by officers and cavalrymen. Soldiers

   on foot could sometimes have simple swords for self-defense.

   Pikes: Older Carolinians in the early 18th century may have used pikes, long

   spear-like weapons, but this was soon phased out in favor of muskets and

   bayonets.

   Pistols: Officers and cavalrymen also often carried flintlock pistols.

   Harness (body armor): Early Carolinians, mainly cavalrymen, sometimes wore

   a simple chest harness (often in the form of a ‘cuirass’), but this gradually disappeared

   during the 18th century as firearms became more effective.

   Other equipment:

   –Cartridge bag: A leather bag that was slung over the shoulder and contained

   paper cartridges with powder and bullets.

   –Powder horn or powder flask: Used to store powder for the musket and

   was kept carefully sealed to avoid moisture and explosions. Was often of

   brass or wood.

   –Cutlass: A shorter sword used by soldiers as a secondary weapon inclose combat.

   secondary weapon in close combat.

   –Cloak: A woolen coat that the soldier could wear as protection against cold and

   rain.

   –Rucksack and pack: Soldiers often carried a simple rucksack to carry

   food, personal belongings and extra clothes. This could also include

   ammunition and other necessities.- Food bowl and cup: Soldiers often carried simple wooden or tin bowls

   for food and cups for drinks.

   –Sword or axe: Some Carolinians also carried an axe or sword, especially

   when they needed to chop wood or perform other practical tasks in the field.

   This equipment gave the Carolinians both offensive capabilities and

   adaptability in the field, making them one of the most effective fighting

   forces of their time, especially in the campaigns of Charles XII.

English language

Most of Bohus Fortress’s belongings that remain today are scattered across West Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. The objects displayed here in the showcase are items that have been found either inside the fortress or in the surrounding ground. Over the years, hundreds of discoveries have been made. Most of the finds consist of ceramics, glass, iron, skeletal remains (mostly from animals), and fragments of cannonballs.

The finds you see here include:

• A skull, a jawbone, and an ox horn. The tooth displayed is likely also from a bovine animal.

• Two smaller skeletal fragments that are parts of a human skull.

• Small pieces of colored brick and ceramics that are remnants of wall decorations.

• A boat hook, which was probably used as a weapon since there are traces of blood on it.

• Fragments of cannonballs.

Christian IV and Kirsten Munch

Christian IV (1577-1648) was King of Denmark and Norway between 1588 and 1648, and is the longest-reigning monarch in Danish history. He acceded to the throne at the age of only 11, with a

guardianship government that ruled until 1596. He devoted himself with great zeal to government affairs, especially defense policy, castle building and the development of Norway. During his reign, he implemented a businesslike economic policy and founded several trading companies, including the Icelandic and East India companies. He annexed the colony of Trankebar in 1616.

Militarily, Christian IV tried to strengthen Denmark’s power in the North and challenge Sweden, but met with several defeats. The Kalmar War (1611-1613) brought few successes, and his involvement in the Thirty Years’ War resulted in heavy losses, including a period of occupation and plunder in Jutland. His foreign policy was aimed at preventing Sweden’s expansion in Germany, but the war against Sweden in 1643-45 was a disastrous defeat that weakened Denmark’s dominance in the North. During a naval battle against the Swedes in 1644, he lost the sight in one eye.

Despite his military failures, his reign is considered a golden age for Denmark, thanks to his building projects. He founded cities such as Kristianstad, Christianshavn and Kristianopel, and his architectural legacy is clearly visible in Copenhagen through buildings such as the Stock Exchange, Rosenborg Palace and the Round Tower.

In terms of family, Christian IV had a total of 23 children from two marriages and several relationships. His first marriage to Anna Katarina of Brandenburg gave him six children, including his successor Frederick III. His second, morganatic marriage to Kirsten Munk resulted in 12 children, but ended in divorce after accusations of infidelity.

Kirsten Munch was a woman who, through her relationship with Christian IV, came to play an important role in his life. She was the daughter of the powerful nobleman Tyge Munch and was one of several women who had a close relationship with the king. They had several children together, and although their relationship was never formally recognized as a marriage, Kirsten Munch had a major impact on Christian IV’s life and perhaps even his political decisions. She lived a reclusive life in

compared to other royal mistresses, but was an important part of the king’s private sphere.
Their relationship, and especially their common children, became a topic of conversation during and after the reign of Christian IV. It is known that the king did not always treat his mistresses or their children with the same respect as his legitimate family, but he also had great concern for them, which was evident in his private actions. In conclusion, Kristian IV was a dynamic and influential ruler who left his mark on the Scandinavia of his time, while Kirsten Munch was a woman who, through her relationship with him, also contributed to his life, even if their relationship was not formally recognized.